Description
In
chapter seven, Slavin discusses effective lessons using direct instruction. Direct
instruction describes, “lessons in which you transmit information directly to students,
structuring class time to reach a clearly defined set of objectives as
efficiently as possible” (Slavin, 2012, p. 160). Slavin summarizes direct instruction
being taught in seven parts; stating learning objectives and orienting students
to the lesson, review prerequisites to ensure students have mastered required
knowledge and skills, present new material in an organized way, conduct
learning probes, provide time for independent practice, assess performance and
provide feedback, and provide distributed practice through homework and review
to ensure information is retained (Slavin, 2012, p. 183). Also discussed in
this chapter is the importance of teaching for transfer of knowledge. As students
learn new material and skills, they should master it at such a level that
allows them to take what they’ve learned and apply it in real-life situations.
Analysis
Providing direct instruction
to students consists of seven parts that both the teacher and students are involved
in. During a lesson, the reasons for teaching and learning the lesson should be
clear. Always keep in mind what you want students to know and be able to do at
the end of the lesson. Students should
be prepared to start a lesson with a positive attitude of readiness. This can
be done in a variety of ways. According to Emmer, Evertson, and Worsham, “you
should require students to be on time to class and you should start the lesson
immediately when the period begins” (Slavin, 2012, p. 163). This sets the tone
of the class, giving it a, “sense of seriousness of purpose” (Slavin, 2012, p.
164). Another way is to pique students’ interest in what they are about to
learn by having them do something physically to get ready for the lesson or by
relating it to their lives in some way. Slavin also states that, “humor or
drama can also establish a positive mental set” (Slavin, 2012, p. 165). This also
grabs students’ attention. Finally, students need to know what is expected of
them throughout the lesson and what they will know at the end of the lesson.
Part two of direct
instruction is reviewing prerequisites. This is important to ensure that
students have “mastered prerequisite skills and to link information that is
already in their minds with the information you are about to present” (Slavin,
2012, p. 165). This also gives students a chance to review prior material and a
chance for teachers to see if students are ready to move forward or if some material
needs to be reviewed.
After reviewing
prerequisites, it is time to present new material, which is the main body of
the lesson. Lessons should be organized logically. According to Good &
Brobphy and Rosenshine, “information that has a clear, well organized structure
is retained better than less clearly presented information” (Slavin, 2012, p.
166). Teachers should put emphasis on the most important parts of the lesson.
Slavin gives the example, “It is particularly important to note that…” (Slavin,
2012, p. 166) as a way for teachers to add emphasis on that important part of
the lesson. Lesson should be developed in a way that presents clarity to all. Straying
away from the topic takes away from clarity. Effective explanations are those
in which take into account and link to what students already know and emphasize
concepts and principles (Wittwer & Renkl, 2008; Bolhuis, 2003; Leinhardt
& Steele, 2005; Slavin, 2012, p. 167). These explanations also create
visuals and organizers for complex ideas. Worked examples are first done by the
teacher, showing students how to work a problem while also thinking out loud so
students know the thought process. Then, students work on different examples, stopping
at certain points in order to explain their thinking to a partner. Another important
part of presenting new material is providing demonstrations, models, and
illustrations. Showing rather than telling gives students a better chance or retaining
the material in their long-term memory (Schunk, 2016; Sousa, 2011; Slavin,
2012, p. 167). It is also important for teachers to maintain student attention
during lessons. Incorporating variety, activity, or humor can “enliven the
lecture and maintain student attention” (Slavin, 2012, p. 168). Finally, content
coverage and pacing are the most important factors in effective teaching
according to Slavin. Finding the appropriate pace for instruction can help
students learn more and can also help with classroom management.
Next, conduct learning
probes. According to Slaving, “The term learning probe refers to any of a variety
of ways of asking for brief student responses to lesson content” (Slavin, 2012,
p. 168). The purpose of learning probes is to check for student understanding. Responses
can be written, physical, or oral.
Once students have a
clear understanding of the material given during the lesson, provide them with
independent practice. Slavin uses the work of Evertson and colleagues and Good
and Brophy to explain effective use of independent practice time (Slavin, 2012,
p. 173).
1. Do
not assign independent practice until you are sure students can do it.
2. Keep
independent practice assignments short.
3. Give
clear instructions.
4. Get
students started, and then avoid interruptions.
5. Monitor
independent work.
6. Collect
independent work and include it in student grades.
After students have
completed the lesson and been given independent practice, teachers should
assess performance and provide feedback. Magan͂a and Marzano (2014) state that “assessment
can involve informally questioning students, using independent work as an
assessment, using clickers or other electronic means of assessing student
understanding, or giving a traditional quiz” (Slavin, 2012, p. 174). After assessing
student performance, it is important that they are given feedback in a timely
manner. This also helps the teacher know which students have mastered the
lesson and which students may need to revisit the lesson.
Finally, students should
be provided with distributed practice and review. “Practice or review, spaced
out over time, increases retention of many kinds of knowledge” (Greene, 2008;
Slavin, 2012, p. 175). Slavin includes that students need to review important
material at long intervals to maintain previous skills (Slavin, 2012, p. 175). Homework
should also be given so students have a chance to practice what they learned in
school, outside of school.
The overall goal of teaching
students is giving them the necessary skills they will need to succeed in life.
In order for this to happen, teachers must teach for transfer of learning. “Transfer
of learning from one situation to another depends on the degree to which the
information or skills were learned in the original situation and on the degree
of similarity between the situation in which the skill or concept was learned
and the situation to which it is to be applied” (Day & Goldstone 2012; Hall
& Greeno, 2008; Shunk, 2016; Slavin, 2012, p. 177). We cannot simply assume
that students will transfer what they learn in real world situations. When teaching,
using real life situations as examples for explaining what is being learned can
help with the transfer of knowledge.
The initial learning and
understanding of a skill or concept plays a big role in how well learning transfer
will occur. Simply memorizing material and not having a deep understanding of
the material will result in an unlikely transfer of learning from the school setting
to real life settings. During the initial learning, “you should use similar
examples until your students understand the concept, and then use diverse
examples that still demonstrate the essential aspects of the concept” (Perkins
& Salomon, 2012; Slavin, 2012, p. 179). Students can also be taught to
transfer skills to new circumstances. When teaching for explicit transfer of learning,
students should understand the commonalities among what is being taught and how
it can be applied in different settings. Students can do this by looking for
common language among similar tasks.
Overall, how well direct
instruction is planned and executed, plays a role in how well students will be
able to understand the information and skills presented in a way that they will
be able to transfer what they have learned to new settings and situations.
Reflection
What does this concept mean to you?
How do you feel about the concept?
How is this concept significant concerning the context
of your classroom?
How did this event change or confirm your knowledge or
beliefs about teaching?
At
the beginning of every school year, I tell my students that my job is not only
to teach them material they need to know to pass a test, but also to teach them
how to succeed in life. I explain to them that I want them to be able to use
what they learn in class, outside of class in real life situations. For this
reason, even after school during competition season, if my cheerleaders said
something incorrectly, I would correct them. They would respond, “Ugh! Miss
Wildes, we are out of school!” Every time, I told them they would thank me one
day when they go for a job interview and remember all the times I corrected
them. While it probably annoyed them, they knew I had their best interest and
that I wanted them to succeed at whatever they do, even if it is having a
formal conversation with someone. Like Slavin explained, transfer of learning
occurs best when the initial learning and understanding during direct instruction
was successful for students (Slavin, 2012, p. 177). For me, I feel like my
students’ transfer of learning is a reflection of the direct instruction I gave
them. However, I am aware that other factors can play a role in students’ transfer
of learning as well.
During
grade school, I remember two classes specifically that helped me outside of
school and helped me understand concepts better through real life examples. In
middle school, I took a computer class each year. It was based on typing and
taught me how to type; where to place my fingers and what fingers are used to
tap each key. Since then, I have been able to use this skill any time I am on a
computer and because it helped me become a proficient keyboarder, it does not
take me any longer to complete assignments. Whereas for some people, computer assignments
can be a burden due to their inability to type proficiently. I have seen this from
my dad who uses his two pointer fingers to tap away at each key as he types an
email. This is also becoming a more necessary skill since all end of the year
assessments are now on the computer and timed.
When I
took calculus in high school, our teacher always used real life examples as
problems to solve. One of my favorites was using a concept to get out of a
speeding ticket. I don’t exactly remember everything about how to solve the
problem, but I thought it was so cool that it could be done! During college,
our professors made us create lessons that included real life issues. The math
teachers created a lesson on how to create a ramp for physically disabled people.
It was awesome and also something that is needed at many places. How cool would
it be for students to learn how to do this through problem solving and then actually
giving them the materials to actually do it?!
One thing
I always appreciated in school was “doing.” That is one thing I strive to
incorporate in my classes. It’s one thing for me to explain and show students a
new skill but it’s another for them to actually experience it and do it on
their own. The example used in table 7.1 for subtraction and regrouping allowed
for students to have hands on experience with subtracting using popsicle
sticks. In the very first vignette, Ms. Logan allowed students to experiment
with bottles and water to see what affects the sound being made. To me, this is
the type of learning that makes school fun and engaging. Students are actually
having to “do” in order to participate and learn.
These
concepts definitely confirmed my beliefs about teaching. In order for students
to have a clear understanding of what they will be learning and what they
should know at the end of the lesson, I feel that it is my responsibility to
present that to them in an organized way. I think this would also help those
students who struggle with organization. It is also important for me to make
sure that students have mastered prerequisite skills before starting a new
lesson. I found this very difficult with my 6th period class last
year. I had students who were above grade level, on grade level, significantly
below grade level, and a student who was five grade levels behind. Within this
class was also a variety of behavior challenges. So, to get everyone where they
needed to be in order to have a whole class lesson to present new material was
extremely difficult. It was also challenging to work with small groups due to
other behavioral challenges in the class. However, that could also be a
reflection of my poorly planned lesson due to not looking at every single aspect
of my classroom, including student readiness and behavioral challenges. I think
this will help me learn for similar situations that may arise in the future.
One thing
I always hear people say is, “When am I ever going to use this in real life?” I
love answering this question because there are so many ways that we can use
what we learn in school outside of school and I think it is important for students
to understand that, especially if you can relate it to something they are
really passionate about.
References
Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory
and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.
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