Reflective Journal #8

Description

In this chapter, Slavin describes the importance of evaluation and how student learning is evaluated. Slavin states, “Evaluation, or assessment, consists of all the means used in schools to formally measure student performance” (Lloyd et al., 2013; McMillan, 2011; Popham, 2014; Waugh & Gronlund, 2013; Slavin, 2018, p. 348).  

Analysis

            Evaluations can be based on quizzes, tests, written evaluations, and grades. While many evaluations focus on academic achievement, they can differ among age groups. For example, elementary schools may provide descriptions such as “follows directions,” “listens attentively,” “works well with others,” and “uses time wisely” (Slavin, 2018, p. 348). In middle and high school, student descriptions may be “works up to ability,” “is prepared,” and “is responsible” (Slavin, 2018, p. 348). The importance of evaluations, or assessments, serve the teacher, student, and parents. According to Waugh & Gronlund (2013), student evaluations serve six primary purposes:

1.     Feedback to students

2.     Feedback to teachers

3.     Information to parents

4.     Information for selection and certification

5.     Information for accountability

6.     Incentives to increase student effort

Evaluation as feedback is important for both teachers and students because it lets the teacher know if their instruction was affective and lets the students know if they fully grasped the concept. Slavin states that regular evaluations give students feedback on their strength and weaknesses (Slavin, 2018, p. 349). For feedback to be useful, evaluations should be as specific as possible so students know and understand exactly what they did right and/or wrong in their work. For teachers, brief but frequent quizzes, writing assignments, and other student products are necessary to provide more detailed indications of students’ progress (Slavin, 2018, p. 349). It’s important that through evaluations, teachers are able to understand students’ thinking and thought process and determine any misconceptions students may have. McTighe & Curtis (2015), Mertler (2014), and Schimmer (2016) found that evaluations also give information to the principal and the school as a whole, which can be used to guide overall reform efforts by identifying where schools or subgroups within schools are in need of improvement.

Evaluations can be used as information to parents, for selection, and for accountability. Evaluations keep parents informed of their student’s achievement in school. If their child is struggling in an area, they are able to assist at home to help their child improve. Evaluations serve as information for selection in many ways. Students are grouped based on their abilities. Students are selection into the gifted and talented program based on evaluations. As students move from grade to grade, they can be placed in certain classes based on their achievement in certain areas. They are used by colleges to see who they should accept. Even after graduating college, evaluations are used for promotion in different career fields. Evaluations as information for accountability include data for evaluating teachers, schools, districts, and states. Statewide testing allows states to rank every school in terms of student performance (Banks, 2012; Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2013, Slavin, 2018, p. 350).

Finally, evaluations can be used as an incentive. Incentives motivate students to do their very best work. High grades, stars, and prizes can be given as rewards for good work. Slavin also states that students value grades and prizes primarily because their parents value them (Slavin, 2018, p. 350).

Assessments can be formative or summative. A formative evaluation is designed to tell teachers whether additional instruction is needed and to tell students whether additional learning is needed (Gewertz, 2015; Heritage, 2011; Higgins, 2014; Marzano et al., 2013; Tomlinson & Moon, 2013; Slavin, 2018, p. 350). Formative evaluations can be quick and done anytime throughout a lesson. They can be in the form or quizzes, oral or brief written learning probes, or by listening to students during group work. Summative evaluations refer to tests of student knowledge at the end of instructional units (Slavin, 2018, p. 350). These evaluations may not be frequent but must be reliable and should allow for comparisons among students. They should also relate to course objectives and tied to formative evaluations.

Students’ scores can be interpreted in two ways, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced. Norm-referenced evaluations focus on comparisons of a student’s scores with those of other students (Slavin, 2018, p. 350). For example, students may be compared to other students in their class based on their grades. Criterion-referenced interpretations focus on assessing students’ mastery of specific skills, regardless of how other students did on the same skills (Slavin, 2018, p. 350). Formative evaluations are almost always criterion-referenced because teachers are checking to see if students are grasping a particular concept. Summative evaluations can be norm-referenced and criterion-referenced because teachers are able to see how well students did on different concepts and how well they did compared to other students in the class.

Different types of evaluations should be used for different purposes. Slavin states, “As a minimum, two types of evaluation should be used: one directed at providing incentive and feedback, and the other directed at ranking individual students relative to the lager group (Slavin, 2018, p. 351).

Traditional grades as incentives are often inadequate due to the fact that grades are given too infrequently, are too far removed in time from the student performance, and are poorly tied to specific student behaviors (Slavin, 2018, p. 351). Research from Duckor (2014), Tomlinson (2014a), and Wiggins (2012) found that achievement is higher in classrooms where students receive immediate feedback on their quizzes than in classrooms where feedback is delayed. Another reason why grades as incentives are not ideal is because high achievers may find it too easy and not do their best work, and low achievers might find it too difficult and give up. Because of these reasons, Slavin suggests that traditional grades should be supplemented by evaluations that are better designed for incentive and feedback (Slavin, 2018, p. 351).

Evaluations are used to compare students with other students so parents and students can have a realistic picture as to where they fall among their peers. Students also need to see where their strengths and weaknesses lie so they are able to make decisions about their futures. Slavin (2018, p. 352) states, “To be fair, comparative evaluations and other summative assessments of student performance must be firmly based on the objectives established at the beginning of the course and consistent with the formative incentive/feedback evaluations in format as well.” It would not be fair for a teacher to use essay questions on a summative test if the formative tests leading up to the summative were not also essay questions. It is also important that teachers collect summative evaluation information as students complete instructional units, as well as to use major unit and final tests.

Overall, evaluations are important for both teachers and students. Teachers can use evaluations to ensure their instruction is effective. They can also use evaluations to group students based on their performance. Students can use evaluations to see how well they are mastering concepts and where they fall among other students in their class/grade.   

Reflection

What does this concept mean to you?

How do you feel about his concept?

How is this concept significant concerning the context of your classroom?

How might you use what you learned to become a better teacher?

            When I was a student, I couldn’t wait to get my assignments back so I could see the grades I made. I also wanted to compare my grades to my friends’. I was always excited to get my report card because I couldn’t wait to show my parents. My incentive as I got older, was $20 for every A I received on my report card. Even when I got to college, my mom would surprise me with something if I got good grades, especially following a semester where I really struggled. While good grades were always a good enough incentive for me to do my best, prizes and rewards helped when I would lose motivation.

            As a teacher, I use evaluations to see where my students are in regards to what we are learning in class. I also use them to ensure what I am doing is effective. One thing I need to be better at is giving my students evaluations with feedback within a timely manner. I would get so caught up with other things I needed to do for school that I would forget all about the feedback on evaluations. This did not benefit me or my students. I think one thing I can do to get better at this, is focusing on the “brief” part of formative evaluations. This way, it is quick for students to do and quick for me to look at, review, give feedback, and return to students in a timely manner.

            One thing that really stuck out to me while reading this chapter is Tileston & Darling’s (2008) example, “if the summative test uses essay questions, then the formative tests leading up to it should also include essay questions” (Slavin, 2018, p. 352). When I was taking a math class in college, my professor made us use this program on our computer to complete all of our assignments. He taught us how to do everything through this program. When we got to the final, we were no longer allowed to use the program, but had to complete it by hand. I was so confused because we had never done any of the work in his class by hand. I kept thinking to myself, If he wanted us to complete our final exam by hand then he should have taught us how to do this by hand instead of through this computer program. It is important that students are given the same type of questions or evaluations that they will see on a summative evaluation.

            One thing I love to use evaluations for is when I meet with parents. I want them to be able to see and understand how their student is doing in my class. I want them to know their child’s strength and weaknesses and what they can be doing at home to help them grow. Parents are typically very appreciative of this information and gain an idea of where their child stands among their peers. For example, I will tell them where their child should be in the sixth grade and where their child actually is, whether it be above or below grade level.

            While I do use some forms of evaluation, I want to focus on using multiple evaluations and making them brief so I am able to give students feedback in a timely manner. This will benefit me and my students. I would also like to keep track of their evaluations so I can determine how well they are progressing and so students can see their progress as well. I am hoping this will motivate students to keep moving forward and working hard in school rather than slacking off and falling behind.  

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.

Reflective Journal #7

Description

In this chapter, Slavin describes the practices that contribute to effective classroom management. Classroom management is defined as the methods used to organize classroom activities, instruction, physical structure, and other features to make effective use of time; to create a happy and productive learning environment; and to minimize behavior problems and other disruptions (Slavin, 2018, p. 439). Slavin also includes different strategies for managing routine misbehavior in the classroom.

Analysis

            In order to implement effective classroom management, Slavin suggests starting the year properly, arranging the classroom for effective instruction, setting class rules and procedures, and making expectations of conduct clear to students (Curwin, 2013; Emmer & Evertson, 2012; Evertson & Emmer, 2013; Wentzel & Brophy, 2014; Slavin, 2018, p. 278). When conducting effective classroom management, consistency is key. Teachers whose classes were on task for the majority of the school year most likely engaged in the following during the first few days of school:

·       Have clear, specific plan for introducing students to classroom rules and procedures, and spend as many days as necessary carrying out their plan until students know how to execute the rules and procedures properly.

·       Work with the whole class initially, remain involved with the whole class at all times, rarely leaving students without something to do or without supervision.

·       Spend extra time during the first days of school introducing procedures and discussing class rules.

·       Teach students specific procedures.

·       Use simple, enjoyable tasks as first activities. Materials are well prepared, clearly presented, and varied. Ask students to get right to work on the first day of school and give them instructions on procedures gradually, to avoid overloading them with too much information at a time.

·       Respond immediately to stop any misbehavior.

(Curwin, 2013; Evertson & Emmer, 2013; Weinstein & Mignano, 2007; Wong & Wong, 2004; Slavin, 2018, p. 278)

            Curwin (2013) presents three principles to govern setting class rules at the beginning of the school year. 1) Class rules should be few in number. 2) Class rules should make sense and be seen as fair by students. 3) Class rules should be clearly explained and deliberately taught to students (Curwin, 2013; Slavin, 2018, p. 279). Class rules can be generated with the help of the students or the teacher may give students a set of rules and ask them to provide examples of the rules. When the entire class is able to come up with and discuss rules that are to be followed in class, they feel as if their voice has been heard and it’s not just the teacher giving them his/her rules without the voice of the students.

            To prevent routine misbehaviors, teachers should plan effective lessons and make good use of class time. If students are engaged and teachers are continually moving through the lesson and into student work sessions, students are more likely to remain on task and less likely to misbehave. While these two measures are important for preventing misbehaviors in the classroom, it is still important to have strategies for dealing with problems when they do occur (Bender, 2015; Charles, Senter, & Charles, 2014; Korpershoek et al., 2016; Losen, 2015; WWC, 2014b; Slavin, 2018, p. 280).

            Slavin states, “Many studies have found that the amount of time spent disciplining students is negatively related to student achievement” (Slavin, 2018, p. 280). It is important to deal with misbehaviors immediately and without disrupting the lesson. There are seven strategies used to correct behavior with the simplest intervention; prevention, nonverbal cues, praise of correct behavior, praise for other students, verbal reminders, repeated reminders, and consequences.

            Prevention includes misbehaviors that never occur at all due to the teacher’s effective display of enthusiasm, varied activities, and the ability to keep students interested and engaged. According to Cross, Thompson, and Erceg (2014), creating a spirit in an entire school that is friendly, inviting, and comfortable also reduces motivations to misbehave (Slavin, 2018, p. 281). Different ways of preventing misbehaviors include varying the content of lessons, using a variety of materials and approaches, instituting cooperative learning or project-based learning, breaking difficult assignments into smaller steps, preparing students to work on their own, and short breaks or physical activities are allowed.

             Nonverbal cues include eye contact, gestures, physical proximity, or touching that a teaher uses to communicate without interrupting verbal discourse (Slavin, 2018, p. 443). Slavin states that, “These nonverbal strategies all clearly convey the same message: “I see what youa re doing and don’t like it. please get back to work.”” This cues typically only effect the student who is misbehaving rather than the entire class.

            Praising behavior that is incompatible with misbehavior means praising students who usually misbehave when they have done something right. For example, if a student always gets out of his/her seat without permission and they raise their hand to ask for permission, praise them for raising their hand and getting permission.

            When a student is misbehaving, praising those students who are doing what they are supposed to be doing will likely get that student refocus and stop the undesired behavior.

            Verbal reminders should focus on the misbehavior itself and not the student. The reminder should immediately follow the misbehavior and should be presented in a positive manor. Slavin gives the following example; It is better to say, “John, please attend to your own work” than “John, stop copying from Alfredo’s paper” (Slavin, 2018, p. 282).

            Some students may need repeated reminders if they refuse to comply with a simple reminder. Once students realize that their teacher means what they say and will use appropriate measures to ensure an orderly, productive classroom environment, they are likely to stop the trying misbehavior.

            If the previous stated strategies do not work, consequences must be given. According to Slavin, “A consequence for not complying with the teacher’s request should be mildly unpleasant, short induration, and applied as soon as possible after the behavior occurs” (Slavin, 2018, p. 283). Examples of these sort of consequences include sending the student to a “time out” area, making the student miss a few minutes of recess or some other privilege, keeping the student after school, or calling the student’s parents. Mild consequences communicate to students, “I cannot tolerate that sort of behavior, but I care about you and want you to rejoin the class as soon as you are ready.” After the student completes the consequence, they should be able to rejoin the class with a new slate and there should be no bringing up the misbehavior that occurred.

            In order to create an environment with effective classroom management, teachers must start out the school year right, implementing, modeling, and giving students the opportunity to practice all rules and procedures that have been put in place. If a student misbehaves, teachers should apply the principle of least intervention to ensure the misbehavior does not disrupt the entire class/lesson.

Reflection

How did you feel about this concept?

How is this concept significant concerning the context of your classroom?

How might you use what you learned to become a better teacher?

How might you handle a situation or activity differently based on this learned information?

            While reading this chapter, I was able to reflect on my own classroom management. I always feel like I do a better job of starting out the year right with each new school year. While I go over the rules and procedures of the classroom with my students daily, I do not give them the opportunity to practice or model these rules. I have also only really focused on what students should not be doing instead of the behavior that I wish to see from my students. I want the rules, procedures, and expectations to be clear to all students and ensure that every student has an understanding of what is appropriate behavior and what is not. This means working together with my students so they know I am willing to do whatever it takes to provide a positive classroom environment for each and every one of them to learn, grow, and succeed.

            I particularly took note of the principle of least intervention and how I have implemented some of these strategies in my own classroom. I would like to continue to work on preventing misbehaviors in my classroom by doing my part. When teaching a lesson, I want to feel like I have planned it in such a way that students are interested and engaged to the point where they no longer feel the desire to misbehave. I want to make sure I have done everything in my power to present such lessons because I don’t want to feel as if I could have done more. I want to do the most to begin with in order to prevent misbehavior.

            In the past I have used nonverbal cues such as eye contact and close proximity to stop misbehaviors without disrupting the entire class. However, in my sixth period this past year I felt like it was nearly impossible. There were so many students who presented misbehaviors that I was constantly having to redirect or stop class to handle whatever was going on that day. It got to the point where I asked my disciplinary principal to speak to the class multiple times because I didn’t know what else to do. I sounded like a broken record with the repeated reminders about misbehaviors and the students didn’t care about consequences.

            In the coming years, I wish to use what I have learned in this chapter to update and continue perfecting my classroom management. I know it will never be perfect but I want to feel like I have thought about every angle of starting the year right, presenting rules and procedures so students understand them, and preventing misbehaviors. Each new school year will have struggles of its own but I think I can be more prepared for these future struggles by learning from past experiences and implementing new strategies that have been presented to me. My hope is that my students are able to see and experience a classroom environment that makes them comfortable, where they feel supported, and know that I will do whatever it takes to limit disruptions and continue with learning so they can succeed.

Reference
Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.

Reflective Journal #6

Description

            In this chapter, Slavin discusses students who are considered “at risk,” and educational programs that are available for schools who have a large percentage of these students. Students are considered “at risk” if they “come from impoverished or chaotic homes, have marked developmental delays, and exhibit aggressive or withdrawn behavior…” (Slavin, 2018, p. 225). Because of this, these students are more likely to experience problems in school than other students. The educational programs that exist for students placed at risk are designed to provide additional assistance to students who are essentially “at risk.”

Analysis

            The most predictive risk factors for students, before school starts, are related to their socioeconomic status and family structure (Slavin, 2018, p. 225). However, once school starts, other risk factors such as poor reading performance, grade repetition, and poor behavior become predictors of later school problems rather than family background factors (Hernandez, 2012; Slavin, 2018, p.225). Compensatory education and early intervention programs are the two programs discussed in this chapter in which educational programs for students who are at risk have access to.

Compensatory education is the term used for programs designed to prevent or remediate learning problems among students who are from low-income families or who attend schools in low-income communities (Slavin, 2018, p. 225). One common program known as Head Start, gave preschool children from disadvantaged homes the skills they needed for a good start in school. The largest compensatory education program is Title I. Title I is “a federally funded program that gives schools money to provide extra services for students from low-income families who are having trouble in school” (Borman, Stringfield, & Slavin, 2001; Manna, 2008; Slavin, 2018, p. 225). The funds for Title I schools go directly toward improving the achievement for these low achievers and/or disadvantaged students. For example, Title I funds may be used to purchase technology, provide professional development for teachers, and to hire paraprofessionals (Slavin, p. 226). These schools may also use the funds to improve the school as a whole so long as it is geared towards improving outcomes. According to Borman, D’Agostino, Wong, and Hedges, the best outcomes of Title I were found when Title I services were closely coordinated with other school services. Slavin (2018, p. 226) states, “schools that closely integrated remedial or instructional Title I services with the school’s main instructional program, and especially schools that used Title I dollars to enhance instruction for all students in schoolwide projects, obtained the best outcomes”.

One drawback of compensatory education programs is that they typically provide services to children only after they have fallen so far behind in school. Instead of focusing on remediation, it may deem more beneficial to focus on prevention and early intervention. Early intervention programs target infants and toddlers who are at risk to prevent possible later need for remediation. According to Slavin (2018, p. 226), “Programs that emphasize infant stimulation, parent training, and other services for children from birth to age 5 have been found to have long-term effects on the school success of students are at risk.” Some of these programs include the following:

·       Nurse-Family Partnerships – trained nurses visit impoverished new mothers to help them learn how to help their children develop physically, emotionally, and mentally (Miller, 2015).

·       Carolina Abecedarian Program – found long-term achievement effects of an intensive program for children from low-income homes who receive services from infancy through school entry (Campbell & Ramey, 1994).

·       Perry Preschool Program – goal is to improve disadvantaged children’s capacity for future success in school and in life. Seeks to break the link between childhood poverty and school failure by promoting young children’s intellectual, social, and physical development.

o   The results of this study conducted from 1962-1967 found that at age 40, the participants who experienced the preschool program had fewer teenage pregnancies, were more likely to have graduated from high school, were more likely to hold a job and have higher earnings, committed fewer crimes, and owned their own home and car.

One major key to early intervention is identifying students who do turn out to need long-term services early. It also ensures that students whose problems can be solved early are not needlessly assigned to special education (Vellutino et al., 1996; Slavin, 2018, p. 227).

            Comprehensive school reform programs are schoolwide approaches that introduce research-based strategies into curriculum, instruction, assessment, grouping, accommodations for children having difficulties, parent involvement, and other elements (Borman, Hewes, Overman, & Brown 2003; Kidron & Darwin, 2007; Slavin, 2008a; Slavin. 2018, p. 227). Success for All is the most widely used comprehensive school reform program today. This program focuses on prevention and early intervention for elementary and middle schools serving disadvantaged communities. To ensure that students do not fall behind in the early ages, Success for All provides reading programs for preschool, kindergarten, and grades 1 through 8. These include one-to-one or small-group computer-assisted tutoring for struggling readers, family support services, and other changes in instruction, curriculum, and school organization (Slavin, 2018, p. 227). Success for all studies have shown that students in this program read better than students in matched control schools and are far less likely to be assigned special education or fail a grade.

            After-school and summer school programs are becoming more and more common. These programs are being funded by Title I and other federal, state, and local education agencies. According to Cooper (2000), Friedman (2003), and Neuman (2010), after-school programs typically combine some sort of academic activity, such as homework help, with sports, drama, and cultural activities (Slavin, 2018, p. 227). Studies have found that for after-school programs to make a difference in student achievement, well-organized coursework to extend the academic day needs to be incorporated. Summer school is typically used for students who have failed a subject/grade and need one last chance to try and pass. It has also been advocated as a “solution to the “summer loss” phenomenon, in which children from families that are low in socioeconomic status tend to lose ground over the summer, whereas middle-class students tend to gain” (Cooper, Borman, & Fairchild, 2010; Slavin, 2018, p.227). Reviews for these programs found that struggling children can be helped when instructional time is extended.

            Overall, this section of the chapter really focused on children who are considered at risk, why these children are considered to be at risk, potential effects of at risk children who do not have the adequate resources needed to help them succeed, and programs used in schools of disadvantaged communities that provide resources in order to improve academic achievement.

Reflection

What does this concept mean to you?

How do you feel about this concept?

How is this concept significant concerning the context of your classroom?

How might you use what you learned to become a better teacher?

            After reading this section of the chapter, I immediately thought about my best friend from grade school. According to Boykin (2000), using the term placed at risk instead of at risk emphasizes the fact that it is often an inadequate response to a child’s needs by school, family, or community that places the child at risk (Slavin, 2018, p. 225). My best friend would have been considered “at risk” due to her family dynamics. She grew up living in many different homes being raised by two parents who were in and out of jail. Her older brother, who was also a child at the time, often took care of her. I was actually with her this past week and while working on our master’s program, I asked her if she thought her life could have turned out a lot differently had it not been for the people who stepped in to raise her once she got older. She replied, “The way I see it, you can let the situation hold you back and define you or you can rise up, work hard, and decide that you do not want to be a part of that cycle anymore.” She is now working on becoming a double-dawg at the University of Georgia.

            I immediately took interest in learning about educational programs that exist for students at risk because I teach a lot of these students. Not only do I teach these students, but I also grew up with a lot of students who were considered to be at risk. Every school I attended was a Title I school and I knew I wanted to teach in one as well because I saw the difference my teachers made in the lives of so many different students. It’s a challenging and exhausting, mentally and physically, job. While I have had students defy the odds of being at risk, majority of them do struggle in reading and they are usually my most challenging behaviorally as well.

            When reading about the early intervention programs, the following stuck out to me: “Early intervention also ensures that children who do turn out to need long term services are identified early…” (Slavin, 2018, p. 227). I taught a student last year who should have never made it to sixth grade without some sort of assistance or services in place. When I found out how far behind he was, I was angry. I kept thinking to myself, why did his teachers keep passing him along when he cannot even read?! I felt like they were doing a huge disservice to him and I couldn’t believe that he had not even been tested for special education. My administrators couldn’t even believe it. They later found out that this student had been to three different elementary schools and had missed over 120 days of schools within three school years. I don’t know if that was part of the reason that he was never tested but I do know that his inability to complete work contributed to his frequent behavioral outbursts in class. Once I finally realized he was working at about a first-grade level, all hands were on deck to get him the help he so desperately needed and deserves.

            One thing I noticed myself doing while reading about the programs that exist for students placed at risk, was wondering if any of these programs were in place at my school. It had me questioning whether or not I knew all the services we have available for students considered to be at risk. One thing I want to do in the future, is to become aware of all the programs and services our school provides for these students and their families as well. I think becoming aware of these programs and services will help me become a better teacher because I will know every thing that our school offers to students and how to help them in the best way possible in order for them to succeed.

References

Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.

Perry Preschool Project. (2018, November 27). Retrieved June 28, 2020, from https://highscope.org/perry-preschool-project/

Reflective Journal #5

Description

In chapter eight, Slavin discusses student-centered and constructivist approaches to instruction and how they are used in the classroom. Constructivist theories of learning draws heavily on the work of Piaget and Vygotsky (Slavin, 2018, p. 188). Also discussed in this chapter is how cooperative learning is used in instruction and how problem-solving and thinking skills are taught.

Analysis

            Constructivist theories of learning is based on the idea that “learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own” (Anderson, Greeno, Reder, & Simon, 2000; Fosnot, 2005; Slavish & Zimbardo, 2012; Slavin, 2018, p. 188). Constructivist strategies are often called student-centered instruction because of the emphasis on students as active learners (Slavin, 2018, p. 188). These theories require students to constantly check new information against old information. The historical roots of the constructivist theory draw heavily on the work of Piaget and Vygotsky. More specifically, four key principles derived from Vygotsky’s ideas have played an important role:

·       Social learning – children learn through joint interactions with adults and more capable peers

·       Zone of proximal development – marks the range of tasks the child might not be able to do alone but can do with the assistance of peers or adults.

·       Cognitive apprenticeship – the process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older more advanced peer

·       Mediated learning – the idea that students should be given complex, difficult, realistic tasks and then be provided enough help to achieve these tasks.

(Slavin, 2018, p. 189)

            Slavin discusses the many different approaches to constructivist teaching. Top-down processing means that, “students being with complex problems to solve and then work out or discover (with guidance) the basic skills required” (Slavin, 2018, p. 190). Peer interaction among students of the same age is another constructivist approach. When students are able to interact with one another, they have a greater potential of discovering and comprehending difficult concepts. Discovery learning is an important component of the constructivist approaches. “In discovery learning, students are encouraged to learn largely on their own through active involvement with concepts and principles, and teachers encourage students to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to discover principles for themselves” (Slavin, 2018, p. 190). While discovery learning is designed to peak students’ curiosity and motivate them to continue working until they find an answer, it can also lead to errors and wasted time. Another key concept is self-regulated learning. Self-regulated students have knowledge of effective learning strategies, when and how to use them, and they are motivated by learning itself (Slavin, 2018, p. 192). They do not need a grade or other award to encourage them to work. Finally, when scaffolding, the teacher is the cultural agent who guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit high cognitive functioning (Slavin, 2018, p. 192).

            Cooperative learning includes students working together in small groups to help each other learn. Usually, students remain in these small groups for a couple months and they are taught specific skills that will help them work well together. Some of the most common cooperative learning methods are jigsaw, peer-assisted learning strategies, and cooperative scripting. When using jigsaw, students are divided into teams. Within each team, students are given different parts to learn. After learning their parts, students meet in expert groups which includes all students in one group who learned the same thing. Once students have talked and discussed in their expert groups, they return to their original group and students take turn teaching their team members about the part they learned. With peer-assisted learning strategies, students work in pairs, taking turns as teaching and learner using specific metacognitive strategies (Slavin, 2018, p. 201). Students using the cooperative scripting method take turns summarizing sections of the material learned. While one student summarizes, the other student listens and corrects when need be or reminds the student of important information in that section he/she might have missed. Then, they switch roles. “Studies of cooperative learning methods that incorporate group goals and individual accountability show substantial positive effects on the achievement of students in grades 2-12 in all subjects and in all types of schools” (Ellis, 2001b; Rohrbeck et. Al., 2003; Slavin, 1995a, 2010, 2013; Slavin, 2018, p. 202).

            With any learning, students must learn how to problem solve. The following are different strategies used to solve problems:

·       IDEAL was developed by Bransford and Stein in 1993.

o   I – Identify the problems and opportunities

o   D – Define goals and represent the problem

o   E – Explore possible strategies

o   A – Anticipate outcomes and act

o   L – Look back and learn

·       Means-Ends Analysis includes deciding what the problem is and what needs to be done. Students should be presented more frequently with different kinds of problems to solve in order to enhance the chance of transferring their skills and knowledge to new situations (Slavin, 2018, p, 205).

·       Extracting Relevant Information means figuring out the information that is relevant to solving the problem. Often times, word problems include unnecessary information that can be ignored. After reading carefully and figuring out the information that is relevant, the problem is easy to solve.

·       Representing the Problem includes drawings, diagrams, flowcharts, outlines, etc. to give a visual of the problem in order to understand what is being asked.

While some problems are “cut-and-dry,” creative problem solving is not. Some of the strategies used to teach creative problem solving are incubation, suspension of judgment, and feedback. Incubation means taking a minute to pause and reflect on the problem. Rushing through a problem without carefully reading or understanding can lead to error. Students are encouraged to suspend all judgement and consider all possibilities before trying out a solution during suspension of judgment (Slavin, 2018, p. 206). This is also similar to brainstorming in which one thinks out many possibilities before taking action to a problem. According to Slavin, the most effective way to teach problem solving is by giving feedback. Students should be given feed back on their answer and on the process by which they arrived at the solution (Slavin, 2018, p. 206).

            Students can be taught thinking skill through a four-step process that is outlined in table 8.1 (Slavin, 2018, p. 207). First, state the problem, solution, or goal. Next, search for ideas, options, possibilities, purposes, features, assumptions, causes, effects, questions, etc. Then, evaluate options, plans, ideas, theories, or objects. Finally, elaborate possibilities, plans, options, hypotheses, or ideas. While it is important for thinking skills to be learned, it is also important that students are able to think critically about their learning. Slavin states, “Perhaps most important, the goal of teaching critical thinking is to create a critical spirit, which encourages students to question what they hear and to examine their own thinking for logical inconsistencies or fallacies” (Slavin, 2018, p. 209).

            Overall, this chapter discusses different teaching strategies that encourages student engagement, cooperative learning, and ways to teach students how to use problem solving skills and thinking strategies to reach solutions.

Reflection

What does this concept mean to you?

How might you use what you learned to become a better teacher?

How is this concept significant concerning the context of your classroom?

What are the positive or negative aspects for this concept?

            I took a class in college called Teaching History. It was based off the book, “Why Won’t You Just Tell Us the Answer?” Teaching Historical Thinking in Grades 7-12 by Bruce A. Lesh. The entire class was based on historical investigations where students are provided with all the information they need in order to “investigate” a topic. Before investigating, they are presented with a question. Using their sources, they are to come up with an answer based on what they discovered in their investigation. I loved this because students were able to learn the information and come up with a solution all on their own, with no skewed opinions. It was student-centered instruction. I used this strategy while teaching informational writing to a class of 8^th graders. Because they were so intrigued when learning about WWII, I based their writing off of whether or not the United States should have entered the war. Leading up to the writing day, students were given information on both sides of the war, historical documents, and they were able to research on their own. They “investigated” the material themselves and based their writing off of what they learned which was still true and factual no matter which way they answered the question. I have found this student-centered learning to be effective and engaging when students are willing and able to perform.

            While I have seen success using student-centered learning, I have also found it to be difficult for students who lack a certain level of critical thinking. This is one skill my 6^th graders really struggle with. If they have to think beyond surface level, some give up. I feel like critical thinking is not being taught or practiced as much as it should be. To help my students with critical thinking skills, they completed a round table problem where they had to figure out who sat by who at the table given few clues. Majority of my students LOVED it! They worked in pairs or groups to solve the problem and would get so excited to show me their answers. I feel like if I included more brain busters to help students develop in their critical thinking skills, they will start to transfer those skills to other uses.

            All of the concepts discussed in this chapter are designed to encourage different strategies to help students engage and succeed. As I was reading, I was noticing all the strategies that I used during grade school that, until now, I had no idea I was using. For example, I struggled in math until I realized I had to open my mind up to the many possible ways to solve a problem. After looking at a problem, I would “incubate” in order to think about the best way to approach the problem. Once I started doing that, I found much more success. Because I have seen these strategies work in my own schooling and I’ve had professors use them with us and they were enjoyable, I want to use them in my classroom. These strategies encourage students to be independent but also allows them to work with peers to solve problems which encourages social interaction.

References

Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.

Reflective Journal #4

Description

            In chapter seven, Slavin discusses effective lessons using direct instruction. Direct instruction describes, “lessons in which you transmit information directly to students, structuring class time to reach a clearly defined set of objectives as efficiently as possible” (Slavin, 2012, p. 160). Slavin summarizes direct instruction being taught in seven parts; stating learning objectives and orienting students to the lesson, review prerequisites to ensure students have mastered required knowledge and skills, present new material in an organized way, conduct learning probes, provide time for independent practice, assess performance and provide feedback, and provide distributed practice through homework and review to ensure information is retained (Slavin, 2012, p. 183). Also discussed in this chapter is the importance of teaching for transfer of knowledge. As students learn new material and skills, they should master it at such a level that allows them to take what they’ve learned and apply it in real-life situations.

Analysis

Providing direct instruction to students consists of seven parts that both the teacher and students are involved in. During a lesson, the reasons for teaching and learning the lesson should be clear. Always keep in mind what you want students to know and be able to do at the end of the lesson.  Students should be prepared to start a lesson with a positive attitude of readiness. This can be done in a variety of ways. According to Emmer, Evertson, and Worsham, “you should require students to be on time to class and you should start the lesson immediately when the period begins” (Slavin, 2012, p. 163). This sets the tone of the class, giving it a, “sense of seriousness of purpose” (Slavin, 2012, p. 164). Another way is to pique students’ interest in what they are about to learn by having them do something physically to get ready for the lesson or by relating it to their lives in some way. Slavin also states that, “humor or drama can also establish a positive mental set” (Slavin, 2012, p. 165). This also grabs students’ attention. Finally, students need to know what is expected of them throughout the lesson and what they will know at the end of the lesson.

Part two of direct instruction is reviewing prerequisites. This is important to ensure that students have “mastered prerequisite skills and to link information that is already in their minds with the information you are about to present” (Slavin, 2012, p. 165). This also gives students a chance to review prior material and a chance for teachers to see if students are ready to move forward or if some material needs to be reviewed.

After reviewing prerequisites, it is time to present new material, which is the main body of the lesson. Lessons should be organized logically. According to Good & Brobphy and Rosenshine, “information that has a clear, well organized structure is retained better than less clearly presented information” (Slavin, 2012, p. 166). Teachers should put emphasis on the most important parts of the lesson. Slavin gives the example, “It is particularly important to note that…” (Slavin, 2012, p. 166) as a way for teachers to add emphasis on that important part of the lesson. Lesson should be developed in a way that presents clarity to all. Straying away from the topic takes away from clarity. Effective explanations are those in which take into account and link to what students already know and emphasize concepts and principles (Wittwer & Renkl, 2008; Bolhuis, 2003; Leinhardt & Steele, 2005; Slavin, 2012, p. 167). These explanations also create visuals and organizers for complex ideas. Worked examples are first done by the teacher, showing students how to work a problem while also thinking out loud so students know the thought process. Then, students work on different examples, stopping at certain points in order to explain their thinking to a partner. Another important part of presenting new material is providing demonstrations, models, and illustrations. Showing rather than telling gives students a better chance or retaining the material in their long-term memory (Schunk, 2016; Sousa, 2011; Slavin, 2012, p. 167). It is also important for teachers to maintain student attention during lessons. Incorporating variety, activity, or humor can “enliven the lecture and maintain student attention” (Slavin, 2012, p. 168). Finally, content coverage and pacing are the most important factors in effective teaching according to Slavin. Finding the appropriate pace for instruction can help students learn more and can also help with classroom management.

Next, conduct learning probes. According to Slaving, “The term learning probe refers to any of a variety of ways of asking for brief student responses to lesson content” (Slavin, 2012, p. 168). The purpose of learning probes is to check for student understanding. Responses can be written, physical, or oral.

Once students have a clear understanding of the material given during the lesson, provide them with independent practice. Slavin uses the work of Evertson and colleagues and Good and Brophy to explain effective use of independent practice time (Slavin, 2012, p. 173).

1.     Do not assign independent practice until you are sure students can do it.

2.     Keep independent practice assignments short.

3.     Give clear instructions.

4.     Get students started, and then avoid interruptions.

5.     Monitor independent work.

6.     Collect independent work and include it in student grades.

After students have completed the lesson and been given independent practice, teachers should assess performance and provide feedback. Magan͂a and Marzano (2014) state that “assessment can involve informally questioning students, using independent work as an assessment, using clickers or other electronic means of assessing student understanding, or giving a traditional quiz” (Slavin, 2012, p. 174). After assessing student performance, it is important that they are given feedback in a timely manner. This also helps the teacher know which students have mastered the lesson and which students may need to revisit the lesson.

Finally, students should be provided with distributed practice and review. “Practice or review, spaced out over time, increases retention of many kinds of knowledge” (Greene, 2008; Slavin, 2012, p. 175). Slavin includes that students need to review important material at long intervals to maintain previous skills (Slavin, 2012, p. 175). Homework should also be given so students have a chance to practice what they learned in school, outside of school.

The overall goal of teaching students is giving them the necessary skills they will need to succeed in life. In order for this to happen, teachers must teach for transfer of learning. “Transfer of learning from one situation to another depends on the degree to which the information or skills were learned in the original situation and on the degree of similarity between the situation in which the skill or concept was learned and the situation to which it is to be applied” (Day & Goldstone 2012; Hall & Greeno, 2008; Shunk, 2016; Slavin, 2012, p. 177). We cannot simply assume that students will transfer what they learn in real world situations. When teaching, using real life situations as examples for explaining what is being learned can help with the transfer of knowledge.

The initial learning and understanding of a skill or concept plays a big role in how well learning transfer will occur. Simply memorizing material and not having a deep understanding of the material will result in an unlikely transfer of learning from the school setting to real life settings. During the initial learning, “you should use similar examples until your students understand the concept, and then use diverse examples that still demonstrate the essential aspects of the concept” (Perkins & Salomon, 2012; Slavin, 2012, p. 179). Students can also be taught to transfer skills to new circumstances. When teaching for explicit transfer of learning, students should understand the commonalities among what is being taught and how it can be applied in different settings. Students can do this by looking for common language among similar tasks.

Overall, how well direct instruction is planned and executed, plays a role in how well students will be able to understand the information and skills presented in a way that they will be able to transfer what they have learned to new settings and situations.   

Reflection

What does this concept mean to you?

How do you feel about the concept?

How is this concept significant concerning the context of your classroom?

How did this event change or confirm your knowledge or beliefs about teaching?

            At the beginning of every school year, I tell my students that my job is not only to teach them material they need to know to pass a test, but also to teach them how to succeed in life. I explain to them that I want them to be able to use what they learn in class, outside of class in real life situations. For this reason, even after school during competition season, if my cheerleaders said something incorrectly, I would correct them. They would respond, “Ugh! Miss Wildes, we are out of school!” Every time, I told them they would thank me one day when they go for a job interview and remember all the times I corrected them. While it probably annoyed them, they knew I had their best interest and that I wanted them to succeed at whatever they do, even if it is having a formal conversation with someone. Like Slavin explained, transfer of learning occurs best when the initial learning and understanding during direct instruction was successful for students (Slavin, 2012, p. 177). For me, I feel like my students’ transfer of learning is a reflection of the direct instruction I gave them. However, I am aware that other factors can play a role in students’ transfer of learning as well.

            During grade school, I remember two classes specifically that helped me outside of school and helped me understand concepts better through real life examples. In middle school, I took a computer class each year. It was based on typing and taught me how to type; where to place my fingers and what fingers are used to tap each key. Since then, I have been able to use this skill any time I am on a computer and because it helped me become a proficient keyboarder, it does not take me any longer to complete assignments. Whereas for some people, computer assignments can be a burden due to their inability to type proficiently. I have seen this from my dad who uses his two pointer fingers to tap away at each key as he types an email. This is also becoming a more necessary skill since all end of the year assessments are now on the computer and timed.

            When I took calculus in high school, our teacher always used real life examples as problems to solve. One of my favorites was using a concept to get out of a speeding ticket. I don’t exactly remember everything about how to solve the problem, but I thought it was so cool that it could be done! During college, our professors made us create lessons that included real life issues. The math teachers created a lesson on how to create a ramp for physically disabled people. It was awesome and also something that is needed at many places. How cool would it be for students to learn how to do this through problem solving and then actually giving them the materials to actually do it?!

            One thing I always appreciated in school was “doing.” That is one thing I strive to incorporate in my classes. It’s one thing for me to explain and show students a new skill but it’s another for them to actually experience it and do it on their own. The example used in table 7.1 for subtraction and regrouping allowed for students to have hands on experience with subtracting using popsicle sticks. In the very first vignette, Ms. Logan allowed students to experiment with bottles and water to see what affects the sound being made. To me, this is the type of learning that makes school fun and engaging. Students are actually having to “do” in order to participate and learn.

            These concepts definitely confirmed my beliefs about teaching. In order for students to have a clear understanding of what they will be learning and what they should know at the end of the lesson, I feel that it is my responsibility to present that to them in an organized way. I think this would also help those students who struggle with organization. It is also important for me to make sure that students have mastered prerequisite skills before starting a new lesson. I found this very difficult with my 6^th period class last year. I had students who were above grade level, on grade level, significantly below grade level, and a student who was five grade levels behind. Within this class was also a variety of behavior challenges. So, to get everyone where they needed to be in order to have a whole class lesson to present new material was extremely difficult. It was also challenging to work with small groups due to other behavioral challenges in the class. However, that could also be a reflection of my poorly planned lesson due to not looking at every single aspect of my classroom, including student readiness and behavioral challenges. I think this will help me learn for similar situations that may arise in the future.

            One thing I always hear people say is, “When am I ever going to use this in real life?” I love answering this question because there are so many ways that we can use what we learn in school outside of school and I think it is important for students to understand that, especially if you can relate it to something they are really passionate about.

References

Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.