Description
In chapter
six, Slavin discuses cognitive theories of learning (mid-1970s), how
information is processed and retained, ways in which to practice retaining
information, and different techniques used in order to help students learn in
and outside of school.
Analysis
Information
processing includes three executive processes; sensory register, working
memory, and long-term memory. The executive process is crucial because, “it is what
determines what a person is interested in putting in long-term memory, and then
it determines how hard the person will think about the stimuli and information
in long-term memory to form new and lasting memories” (Slavin, 2012, p. 123). Information
first meets the sensory register which, “receives large amounts of information
from each of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) and hold it for a
very short time, no more than a couple of seconds” (Slavin, 2012, p, 124). There
are two important educational implications of the sensory register; “people
must pay attention to information if they are to retain it” and “it takes time
to bring all the information seen in a moment into consciousness” (Slavin,
2012, p. 124).
The second
component of the memory system is the working (or short-term) memory. The working
memory is, “a storage system that can hold a limited amount of information for
a few seconds” (Slavin, 2012, p. 125). Any information that is currently being
thought about is stored in the working memory. The capacity of the working
memory is believed to be around five to nine bits of information (Purves, 2012;
Slavin, 2012, p. 126). However, individuals differ in their working memory capacity
based on their background knowledge and their ability to use strategies in
order to organize information in their working memory capacity.
The
last component of the memory system is long-term memory. This is the part where
we keep information for long periods of time. The capacity of our long-term
memory is virtually unlimited and this information can last forever. Long-term
memory is divided into at least three parts:
Episodic
memory – memory of personal experiences. (Ex. remembering what you had for
dinner last night, what happened at your high school prom) These memories are stored
in the form of images that are organized based on when and where events
happened.
Semantic
memory – contains the facts and generalized information that we know; concepts,
principles, or rules and how to use them. These are organized in the form of
network of ideas, schema.
Procedural
memory – “knowing how” in contrast to “knowing that.” (Ex. Priving,
keyboarding, and riding a bicycle) Procedural memories are stored as a complex of
stimulus-response pairings (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011; Sousa, 2011).
(Slavin, 2012, p. 127)
An alternative
model of information processing is called levels-of-processing theory (Craik,
2000; Tulving & Craik, 2000). This model “holds that people subject stimuli
to different levels of mental processing and retain only the information that
has been subjected to the most thorough processing” (Slavin, 2012, p. 130). The
example Slavin gives is in regards to a tree. The lowest level of processing is
just perceiving the tree but paying little attention to it in which you would be
less likely to remember it. Next, you might categorize the type of tree, giving
it a name maple or oak. Finally, the highest level of processing,
is giving meaning to the tree. For example, you might remember climbing the
tree or the time your cat got stuck in the tree. Paivio’s dual code theory of
memory is a concept related to levels-of-processing theory. This concept, “hypothesizes
that information is retained in long-term memory in two forms: visual and
verbal” (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Shunk, 2016). Information remembered both
verbally and visually tends to be remembered better than if it was just
remembered verbally or visually.
There
are many factors that can play a role in determining how easy or difficult information
is to remember. Interference happens when information gets mixed up with, or
pushed aside by, other information (Slavin, 2012, p.138). Interference can take
place when, “people are prevented from mentally rehearsing newly learned
information” (Slavin, 2012, p.138). Retroactive inhibition is another form of
interference. This occurs when “previously learned information is lost because
it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information” (Slavin, 2012, p.
138). Proactive inhibition is when previous knowledge gets in the way of learning
later information. Slavin gives the example of an experienced North American
driver learning to drive in England. This driver will have a much harder time adjusting
because they are so use to driving on the right side of the road. However, a
non-experienced North American driver will adjust a bit easier because they
have not learned and experienced one way or the other. Proactive facilitation
is previous learning that can often help someone learn similar information.
Retroactive facilitation is learning new information that can help with already
existing knowledge. Older findings in education psychology suggest that people
tend to learn information taught at the beginning and at the end. The information
in the middle gets lost. The primacy effect is the tendency to learn the first
items presented. The recency effect is the tendency to learn the last elements
presented. Automaticity requires practice and is, “a level of rapidity and ease
such that a task or skill involved little or no mental effort” (Slavin, 2012,
p. 140).
Practice makes perfect?
Massed practice is practicing newly learned information intensively until it is
thoroughly learned. This practice is likely to get you through a test that you
are cramming for but does not allow for long-term memory (Slavin, 2012, p.140-141).
Distributed practice is practicing a little each day over a period of time. Enactment
is the concept of learning by doing. We learn more when we get the opportunity
to practice what we just learned ourselves, not merely by watching the teacher.
Generation allows for students to create something using the information they
just learned.
Metacognitive skills and
cognitive teaching strategies help students learn in different ways. Metacognition
means “knowledge about one’s own learning (McCormick, Dimmit, & Sullivan,
2013; Ormrod, 2016) or about how to learn” (Slavin, 2012, p. 146). Strategies
such as practice tests, note-taking, underlining, summarizing, writing to learn,
outlining and concept mapping, and the PQ4R method (preview, Question, read, reflect,
recite, review) all promote effective learning. Cognitive teaching strategies
focus on making learning relevant and activating prior knowledge by using
analogies, information elaboration, organizational schemes, questioning techniques,
and conceptual models.
Reflection
What does this concept mean to you?
How did you feel about this concept?
How might you use what you learned to become a better
teacher?
How did this event change or confirm your knowledge or
beliefs about teaching?
Last year,
I was on a camping trip with a friend, who was also my mentor teacher, and her
grandson. As we were riding through the mountains, she would always say, “August,
are you looking at the views? Put your phone down. I want you to remember this.
Listen to the sounds and smell the scent of the great outdoors.” If she wasn’t
driving, I am positive she would have done something crazy to give him another
way of remembering the drive. I would also notice her using the senses in the
classroom when she taught as well. She was so animated and used different hand
signals and chants to help students remember information. We had a ton that we
would do when correcting sentences and the kids loved it. Even during virtual
learning, I was able to help a student correct a mistake he made just by
saying, “What kind of verb is this? __________ VERB, CAN’T ADD E-D! Now go correct
the verb.” I was so happy when he responded with IRREGULAR and he fixed his
mistake.
Being
in school, I remember all the information that was thrown at me in one day. The
teacher wanted me to listen to what they were saying and they also wanted me to
take notes from the PowerPoint. For me, I was doing one or the other and it was
usually taking notes. I was so focused on what I was writing that I didn’t hear
a single thing that the teacher was saying. When the teacher would say, “If you
have not heard anything I have said up until now, I need you to listen to this.”
I would stop writing and I would listen. It was important for my teacher to do that
for me. So, I would have it written, I heard the teacher say it, I probably put
a huge star by it or highlighted it, and then I would come up with another way
to help me remember it by. For the amount of information that gets thrown into
our working memory a day, it seems nearly impossible for it to be transferred
into our long-term memory, especially if it is something that we do not care
about. I think, as teachers, this is why it is so important for us to make learning
meaningful to our students.
As I was
reading this chapter, I kept hearing my high school math teacher tell me, “Okay,
now that you have it, go teach it to someone else!” After tutoring and feeling
confident in the material, she would always encourage me to go teach it someone
because that was another way of solidifying my knowledge of the concept. For
me, practice does make perfect. In school, I did a lot of massed practicing in history
and science. It was a bunch of recall information and I wasn’t “doing” anything
with the information given to me. I just had to remember it for a test. For math,
I did a lot of distributed practice. Many concepts in math build on one another
so if I got behind on one concept, I was falling behind on an even bigger one.
One of
my favorite courses in college was “Teaching History.” The course was based off
the book, “Why Won’t You Just Tell Us the Answer?”:Teaching Historical Thinking
in Grades 7-12 by Bruce A. Lesh. In this course we looked at history as an
investigation. We were not merely memorizing information but looking at
different sources and comparing them and coming up with our own conclusions
based off the investigating we did. This is one of my favorite teaching
practices because students are learning and gathering information and then analyzing
it in order to come up with their own conclusion based on evidence they
reviewed. This was my first time actually doing something like that and I was
in my junior year of college. I kept thinking, “Wow, if I would have learned
history like this in grade school, I would have loved it.”
Because
information can be difficult to retain, it is important that I make learning
relevant and meaningful to my students. Not only that, but I need to allot time
for student practice. I think it can be easy for me to get caught up in what I need
them to learn that day that I don’t always give them the time they need to
practice the information they were just given. I also want to incorporate more
of the senses and more animation in my teaching to help students remember
information that way. Something else I noticed my previous students were
lacking were study skills and organizing information in general. I think it
would be beneficial if I provided examples of the different metacognitive
skills and strategies in order for students to take control of their own
learning and figure out how they remember best.
Reference
Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.
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