Reflective Journal #2

Description

In chapter five, Slavin discusses behavioral and social theories of learning. Behavioral learning theories, “focus on the ways that pleasurable or unpleasant consequences of behavior change individuals’ behavior over time and the ways individuals model their behavior on that of others” (Slavin, 2012, p. 97). Social learning theories, “focus on the effects of thought on action and of action on thought” (Slavin, 2012, p.97). Slavin includes information from researchers Ivan Pavlov (late 1800s to early 1900s) and B.F. Skinner (1948) who conducted experiments to understand how people and animals learn. Developed by Albert Bandura in 1973, Slavin explains Bandura’s finding that the social learning theory focuses more, “on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal mental processes” (Bandura 1997, 2006; Slavin, 2012, p.112).

Analysis

            Two of the most important researchers remembered for their behavioral learning theories are Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov and his colleagues studied the process of classical conditioning using dogs and the timing and rate of their salivation. When placing meat in front of the dog, the dog would salivate. This is considered an unconditioned stimulus because, “the meat provoked this response automatically without any prior training or conditioning” (Slavin, 2012, p. 99). The dog’s salivation is an unconditioned response because the salivation also occurred automatically, without training, in the presence of meat. Pavlov included a neutral stimulus, the ringing of a bell. The neutral stimulus has no effect on the response in question, the timing and rate in which dogs salivate. However, when pairing the bell with the meat during the conditioning, the bell becomes a conditioned response. When the bell rings and the meat is presented, the dog salivates. This salivation is still an unconditioned response. After conditioning, because the dog is used to hearing the bell when the meat is presented, the dog begins to salivate just by hearing the bell. The dog’s response is now a conditioned response.

            Skinner proposed the idea of operant conditioning which explains behaviors based on pleasant and unpleasant consequences. Slavin states, “if an individual’s behavior is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the individual will engage in that behavior more frequently” (Slavin, 2012, p. 99). Skinner used rats and the “Skinner box.” Within the box was a rat, a bar that was easy enough for a rat to press and it would dispense a pellet of food, and a water dispenser. First, the rat accidentally pressed the bar but eventually the rat would press it more often to get the food. Skinner’s experiment was conducted in a controlled environment in which the experimenter would change the number of bar presses it took for the rat to receive food. This allowed them to record the behavior of the rat each time they changed the consequence the rat would receive for the pressing the bar.

            Part of behavioral learning is understanding the consequences of one’s behavior. According to Slavin, “a reinforcer is any consequence that strengthens a behavior” (Slavin, 2012, p. 101). There are two categories that reinforcers fall in to; primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers are things such as food, water, security, etc. These reinforcers satisfy basic human needs. Secondary reinforcers acquire their value by being associated with primary reinforcers. Slavin uses the example of money and a young child. “Money has no value to a young child until the child learns that money can be used to buy things that are themselves primary or secondary reinforcers” (Slavin, 2012, p. 101). There are also positive and negative reinforcers. Positive reinforcers in school may include grades, praise, and rewards. However, some behavior can be strengthened if the reinforcer allows the student to get out of doing something that is unpleasant to them. This would be considered a negative reinforcer. Other reinforcers include intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcers. Intrinsic reinforcers are anything that someone enjoys doing. For example, if someone likes to sing and they have a passion for singing, they are going practice their singing without any reason other than its something they enjoy. Extrinsic reinforcers include, “praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in a behavior that they might not engage in without it” (Slavin, 2012, p. 103). For example, some schools have a “Four Sport Award.” Students may try a sport they wouldn’t normally play just to get the award.

            Albert Bandura felt that Skinner’s research missed the impact of modeling – “learning from others’ successes and failures” (Skinner, 2012, p. 112). Bandura felt that more people learned by modeling rather than from a consequence. He includes four phases in his analysis of observational learning:

1.     Attentional phase – pay attention to a model

2.     Retention phase – model the behavior they want students to imitate and then give students a chance to practice or rehearse

3.     Reproduction – students try to match their behavior to the model’s behavior

4.     Motivational phase – students will imitate a model because they believe that doing so will increase their own chances to be reinforced.

(Slavin, 2012, p. 112)

Many teachers use the concept of vicarious learning in their classrooms. Slavin states, “When one student is fooling around, teachers often single out others who are working well and reinforce them for doing a good job” (Slavin, 2012, p. 113). It is hoped that when students who are off task see this they will get back on task.

Self-regulation is another important concept in social learning theory. During self-regulation, you judge yourself based on the job you did. “Bandura (1997) hypothesized that people observe their own behavior, judge it against their own standards, and reinforce or punish themselves” (Slavin, 2012, p. 114).

Reflection

How did you feel about the concept?

How might you use what you learned to become a better teacher?

How might you handle a situation or activity differently based on this learned information?

If this event sparked additional questions, what are they and what action(s) will you take to address them?

            During my first year of teaching, I had a student who was on a behavior plan. If he reached certain goals by the end of the week, he got a bag of chips and free time in the gym. In my mind I thought, “Is this a joke? Why should he get that when students who are on their best behavior do not get those same rewards?” Reading this chapter reminded me of that situation and how conflicting it can be at times to decide how to react when students are misbehaving. In my sixth period class this year, I had a handful of students who were academically low, students who were on grade level but cause major class disruptions, and students who were low and major class disruptions. As I was reading this chapter, I was constantly thinking about those students and the reinforcers I gave them and probably shouldn’t have. Most days I was just trying to eliminate the disruptions so I could reach at least some of my students. However, this was a big mistake. Negative reinforcers include behaviors that are strengthened due to its consequence being an escape from an unpleasant situation (Slavin, 2012, p.101). The moment I told a student to step outside or go to the office, it became almost an everyday thing. They wanted to work in the hallway or they wanted to go to the office so they could get out of their classroom duties as a student. One student in particular did this due to her inability to read and comprehend. She was also repeating the sixth grade.

            In the future, I will definitely implement reinforcers such as praise, attention, grades and recognition, calling home, privileges, and activity reinforcers. One thing I also have to remember is that fair is not always equal. This is a saying I’ve heard many times by previous professors I’ve had. I truly believe in the saying but I don’t always remember it, especially in the heat of a moment situation with students with behavior challenges. I also have to remember that some students do not have good modeling examples outside of school and they bring what they learn from home into the classroom. I think this is another reason why positive reinforcers are so important.

            Questions that I now have are the following: How do I decide what reinforcer to use? How do I determine when I should send a student to the office or try something else? At what point do I no longer allow the disruptions to continue and something has to give? I feel like I am fighting with myself. I know the student wants to get out of class so I am not going to let them leave but they are causing major disruptions. How do I decide what to do? I am hoping these answers will come with experience and continued support from other teachers. I also believe that taking more time to get to know my students may help with this as well.

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.

Reflective Journal #1

Description

In chapter two, Slavin describes children’s cognitive development based on the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bronfenbrenner. Their theories derived in the early 1900’s to present. Piaget believed that, “a child’s intellect, or cognitive ability, progresses through four distinct stages” (Slavin, 2012, p. 25). Piaget’s stages include Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years), Preoperational (2 – 7 years), Concrete operational (7 – 11 years), Formal operational (11 years – to adulthood). Vygotsky believed first that, “intellectual development can be understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience” (Slavin, 2012, p. 33). Secondly that, “development depends on the sign systems that individuals grow up with: the symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate, and solve problems” (Slavin, 2012, p. 33). Bronfenbrenner believes that social and institutional influences a child’s development, “from family, schools, places of worship, and neighborhoods, to broader social and political influences, such as mass media and government” (Slavin, 2012, p. 36).

Analysis

            As teachers plan lessons and assignments, they should be aware of where their students are at cognitively. This is also important for parents as well as they teach their children how to determine objects, talk, and read. Piaget suggests the following major accomplishments at each stage: Sensorimotor – Formation of concept of “object permanence” and gradual progression from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior. (Slavin, 2012, p. 27)

Preoperational – development of the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered. (Slavin, 2012, p. 27)

Concrete operational – Improvement in ability to think logically. New abilities include the use of operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not yet possible. (Slavin, 2012, p. 27)

Formal operational – Abstract and purely symbolic thinking is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of systematic experimentation. (Slavin, 2012, p. 27)

Slavin, the secondary source, cites Berk (2013), the original source, who summarizes how Piaget would implement teaching. Berk suggests that, “In addition to checking the correctness of children’s answers, teachers must understand the processes children use to get to the answer” (Slavin, 2012, p. 32). This is important so teachers are able to see and understand children’s current level of cognitive functioning. Another implication, as suggested by Berk, is recognizing, “the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement in learning activities” (Slavin, 2012, p. 32). Teachers should provide a variety of activities that give children the initiative to get involved in the physical world. Berk suggests as a third implication, “A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adultlike in their thinking” (Slavin, 2012, p. 33). Ultimately, it could be less beneficial to move children along in their thinking before they are cognitively ready. Lastly, Berk suggests the, “Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress” (Slavin, 2012, p. 33). According to Piaget, all children go through the same developmental sequence but they do so at different times. Therefore, teachers must differentiate in their classroom for the students who are in different stages of cognitive development.

Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that learning precedes development. He suggested, “Development occurs as the child internalizes signs so as to be able to think and solve problems without the help of others, an ability called self-regulation” (Slavin, 2012, p. 33). The three steps of self-regulation as it involves independent thinking and developing internal structures are the following (Slavin, 2012, p. 33):

1.     Learning that actions and sounds have a meaning

2.     Practice

3.     The use of signs to think and solve problems without the help of others

Vygotsky’s main implications into the classroom include the zone of proximal development, scaffolding and cooperative learning. Students working within their zone of proximal development cannot yet accomplish tasks alone but could accomplish tasks with the assistance of more competent peers or adults (Slavin, 2012, p. 34). “The concept of a zone of proximal development implies that only instruction and activities that fall within this zone can be learned. Teaching content that is too easy or too difficult does not add to learning” (Slavin, 2012, p. 35). Scaffolding means, “providing a child with a great deal of support during the early stages of learning and then diminishing that support and the child take on increasing responsibility as soon as she or he is able” (Slavin, 2012, p. 34). Scaffolding does not simplify the task for the learner but provides the learner with building blocks to help them get to a place where he/she can take on the task on their own. Finally, Vygotsky suggests the use of cooperative learning which allows children to work together to help one another learn. When students are placed in groups with children at different levels, they are able to help each other learn.

Bronfenbrenner describes a bioecological approach. The importance of this approach is in, “emphasizing the interconnectedness of the many factors that influence a child’s development” (Slavin, 2012, p. 36). His model includes four levels, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. The child only is included in the microsystem. The mesosystem includes neighborhood play area, day-care center, peers, doctor’s office, place of worship, family, and school. The exosystem includes neighbors, legal services, school board, community health and welfare services, workplace, mass media, friends and family, and extended family. The macrosystem includes broad ideology, laws, and customs of one’s culture, subculture, or social class (Slavin, 2012, p. 37, Figure 2.5).

Reflection

What did this concept mean to you?

How did you feel about his concept?

How is this concept significant concerning the context of your classroom?

How did this event change or confirm your knowledge or beliefs about teaching?

            When I took psychology in high school and educational psychology during my undergrad, I did not critically think about the understanding of these theories as a teacher. Now that I have two years of teaching beneath me, I read this chapter with a whole new insight. As I was reading, I was able to think about my students and where their cognitive abilities lie. I was able to create a mental picture of how I believe these theories take place in my classroom; Piaget, Bronfenbrenner, and Vygotsky. Piaget’s theory suggests the ways in which children develop in stages and at different times. I notice this in my classroom because every one learns differently and at different levels. Next, I believe Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach is important before moving toward Vygotsky’s. I think the importance of this approach is getting to know my students, what is affecting them outside of school and how that affects them in school. Finally, after understanding my students and their surroundings, I would use Vygotsky’s theory in order to plan my lessons around my students, incorporating scaffolding and cooperative learning.

            I had a student (I will call him Alex for security purposes) this past year who I could not understand for the longest time. When Alex first came to me during the first semester, he would sit quietly and not do anything. As days turned into weeks, I noticed that he was absent or tardy a lot, he was avoiding work, resisted help, he would run off when I was taking the class to the bathroom or the library, and he stayed in the office due to his challenging behavior. For a while, I just wanted him out of my room so I could teach without disruptions or distractions to other students. Finally, I began to realize that his behavior stemmed from his inability to do work. I realized that I had this sixth-grade student who was on a second-grade level. Alex is in the stage of concrete operational and his zone of proximal development is way below his peers. In order for Alex to complete assignments, he needed constant assistance because of his reading level. After working with administration and getting to know Alex more, we learned that he lived with his parents, grandmother (who he shared a room with), and six other boys. Alex attended three different schools during his time in elementary school, and in the last three years he missed over 120 days of school. This is where Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach became very important. His lack of development outside of school due to his surroundings hindered his academic development in school. Working within Alex’s proximal development and knowing what he enjoyed meant having him draw a comic book and explaining to me the story verbally. Once I understood Alex and what he could and couldn’t do, I was able to work with him at his level and he was more receptive to me as well.

            I think it was really important for me to review these different theories of cognitive development now that I am a teacher because it reminded me of how children develop, when they develop (at different times), factors that affect their development, and how to teach them through their zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and cooperative learning.

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (12th ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.